Category: Government

In this post we will be looking at Legislative branch of Federal government of Nigeria, Legislation as a source of Nigerian law and Functions of legislation.

INTRODUCTION

The Legislature is said to be the first among the three Arms of Government – the Legislature, Executive, and the Judiciary. These Arms are characterized by the principle of separation of power as each is supposed to be independent of the other. The Legislature derives its powers from the 1999 Constitution (as amended) in Sections 4(1) and 4(2). The Legislature is vested with the powers to make laws for the peace, order and good governance of the Federation. “It is also vested with investigatory powers, financial powers, confirmation and impeachment powers. It would not be out of place for me to use this occasion to remind us that the Legislature is the symbol of democracy all over the world. Under Section 4 (1) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (as amended) (the “Constitution”), the National Assembly of Nigeria often called NASS is vested with the legislative powers of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. That is the power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Federation with respect to any matter included in the Exclusive Legislative List and the Concurrent List – a list of 12 items that both NASS and States’ house of Assembly can legislate on. This legislative power is typically exercised through Bills passed by the NASS which are assented to by the President. Bills generally come in two forms – either a Private Bill which affects private citizens, corporate entities and/or a particular class of people or Public Bills which affect the general public. A Bill can be introduced into either chamber of the NASS by members of the respective chambers or the Executive arm of government. The National Assembly of Nigeria has two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of Nigeria’s bicameral National Assembly and is presided over by the Speaker of the House of Representatives. It has 360 members each of the Federal Constituencies of the country, who are elected for four-year terms in single-seat constituencies. A Bill can be introduced into either chamber of the NASS by members of the respective chambers or the Executive arm of government. The National Assembly of Nigeria has two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of Nigeria’s bicameral National Assembly and is presided over by the Speaker of the House of Representatives. It has 360 members each of the Federal Constituencies of the country, who are elected for four-year terms in single-seat constituencies. The Senate, which has 109 members, is presided over by the President of the Senate. 108 members are elected for four-year terms in 36 three-seat constituencies, which correspond to the country’s 36 states. One member is selected in the single-seat constituency of the federal capital. The legislators are elected to either the House of Representatives or the Senate to be representatives of their constituencies and to pass legislation to benefit the public. The legislative process consists of bills being drafted and presented in either of the two chambers. These bills can only become national law once they are approved by the president of Nigeria who can veto bills. The President of the Senate is currently Ahmed Ibrahim Lawan, who was elected to the senate in 2007, and the Speaker of the House is Femi Gbajabiamila, who has been Nigeria’s 9th Speaker of the House of Representatives since 2019. Each member of the National Assembly of Nigeria can be elected to more than two four-year terms. Recently, the Legislative branch has been misusing its position as a check on the power of the president and his cabinet. Legislators have been known to utilize their power for not only law-making, but as a means of political intimidation and a tool to promote individual monetary success. Senators are paid a salary equivalent to over $2,200 USD a month, supplemented by expenses of $37,500 USD a month (2018 figures).

Legislative branch of Federal government of Nigeria

The legislative branch is responsible for creating laws. Federally, the legislative branch is Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The executive branch is responsible for enforcing the laws. Federally, the executive branch is led by the president. Other members of the executive branch include the vice president, the Cabinet, and all of the employees of federal departments that are part of the executive branch, such as the CIA, the FBI, and the post office. The United States military is also considered part of the executive branch. The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the laws. Federally, the judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and the other federal courts. While the Constitution only establishes branches of government at the national level, all 50 states have also divided their state governments into the same three branches of government through their state constitutions. At the state level, the executive branches are led by governors, the legislative branches are made of elected state legislatures, and the judicial branches take the form of state supreme courts and other state courts.

Legislation as a source of Nigerian law

The two fundamental sources of Nigerian law through legislation are

• Acts of British parliament, popularly referred to as statutes of general application during the period before independence.
• Local legislation (comprising enactments of the Nigerian legislatures from colonial period to date). There were other sources which though subsumed in Nigerian legislations were distinctly imported into the Nigerian legal systems. They are called the criminal and penal codes of Nigeria.

Nigerian statutes as sources of Nigerian law

Nigerian legislation may be classified as follows. The colonial era until 1960, post-independence legislation 1960-1966, the military era 1966-1999.

Post-independence legislation 1960-1966

The grant of independence to Nigeria was a milestone in the political history of the country. This period witnessed the consolidation of political gains made during the colonial era. Politicians genuinely focused their lapses in the polity. It achieved for herself a republican status by shaking off the last vestiges of colonial authority. However, despite the violent violation of its provisions, the constitution remained the subsequent administrations (military or otherwise).

Military regime, 1966-1999

The Armed forces of Nigeria assumed the rulership of Nigeria in 1966 – 79 and 1983 – 99 except in August – September, 1992. The breakdown of law and order which occurred in the period under review would not be attributed to any defect in the Nigerian legal system. Corrupt practices both in the body politics and all aspects of Nigerian life eroded efficiency and progress. There were 8 coups generally, five were successful and 3 were unsuccessful.

Functions of legislation

Democratic legislatures have six major functions: representation, deliberation, legislation, authorizing expenditure, making governments, and oversight. The functions are as follows:

Representation

There exist five ways that representation can be achieved in a legislature:

• Formalistically: how the rules of the legislature ensure representation of constituents;
• Symbolically: how the constituents perceive their representatives;
• Descriptively: how well the composition of the legislature matches the demographics of the wider society;
• Substantively: how well representatives actually respond to the needs of their constituents;
• Collectively: how well the representatives represent the interests of the society as a whole.

Deliberation

One of the major functions of a legislature is to discuss and debate issues of major importance to society. This activity can take place in two forms. In debating legislatures, such as the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the floor of the legislature frequently sees lively debate. In contrast, in committee-based legislatures like the United States Congress, deliberation takes place in closed committees.

Legislation

While legislatures have nominally the sole power to create laws, the substantive extent of this power depends on details of the political system. In Westminster-style legislatures the executive (composed of the cabinet) can essentially pass any laws it wants, as it usually has a majority of legislators behind it, kept in check by the party whip, while committee-based legislatures in continental Europe and those in presidential systems of the Americas have more independence in drafting and amending bills.

Authorizing expenditure

The origins of the power of the purse which legislatures typically have in passing or denying government budgets goes back to the European assemblies of nobility which the monarchs would have to consult before raising taxes. For this power to be actually effective, the legislature should be able to amend the budget, have an effective committee system, enough time for consideration, as well as access to relevant background information.

Making governments

The power of the legislature over the government is stronger.

Oversight

There are several ways in which the legislature can hold the government accountable, including questioning, interpellations, and votes of confidence.

In this post we will be looking at Meaning of imperialism system of government, Forms of Imperialism, Imperialism vs. Colonialism, the Age and the Decline of Classic Imperialism.

INTRODUCTION

Imperialistic takeovers have been happening all over the world for hundreds of years, one of the most notable examples being the colonization of America. While the colonization of the Americas between the 15th and 19th centuries differed in nature from the expansion of the United States, Japan, and the European powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both periods are examples of imperialism. Imperialism has evolved since the struggles between prehistoric clans for scarce food and resources, but it has retained its bloody roots. Throughout history, many cultures suffered under the domination of their imperialist conquerors, with many indigenous societies being unintentionally or deliberately destroyed. The histories of ancient China, western Asia, and the Mediterranean were defined by an unending succession of empires. During the 6th to 4th century BCE, the tyrannically authoritarian Assyrian Empire was replaced by the more socially liberal and longer-lasting Persian Empire. The Persian Empire eventually gave way to the imperialism of ancient Greece, which reached its apex from 356 to 323 BCE under Alexander the Great. While Alexander achieved a union of the eastern Mediterranean with western Asia, his vision of the world as a “cosmopolis” in which all citizens lived together harmoniously remained a dream until it was partially realized when the Romans built their empire from Britain to Egypt. After the fall of Rome in 476 BCE, the idea of imperialism as a force for unification faded quickly. The European and Asian nations that arose from the ashes of the Roman Empire pursued their individual imperialist policies as imperialism became the divisive force it would remain in the modern world. The modern era would see three periods of vast imperialism and aggressive colonialism. From the 15th century to the middle of the 18th century, England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain built empires in the Americas, India, and the East Indies. A strong negative reaction to imperialism led to almost a century of relative calm in empire building. The period from the middle of the 19th century and World War I (1914 to 1918) were again characterized by a rapid spread of imperialism. As indirect, especially financial, control became a preferred form of imperialism over direct military intervention, Russia, Italy, Germany, Japan, and the United States, became new imperialistic states. After World War I, the promise of a peaceful world inspired by the League of Nations brought another short pause in imperialism. Japan renewed its empire-building in 1931when it invaded China. Led by Japan and Italy under Benito Mussolini’s Fascist Party, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, a new period of imperialism dominate the 1930s and 1940s.

What Is Imperialism System of Government

Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other territories and peoples. Because it always involves the use of power, whether military or economic or some subtler form, imperialism has often been considered morally reprehensible, and the term is frequently employed in international propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent’s foreign policy. In ancient times, rulers in China, western Asia, and the Mediterranean extended their power through imperialism. Between the 15th century and the middle of the 18th, England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain built empires in the Americas, India, and the East Indies.

Forms of Imperialism

As the practice of imperialism grew, it took on several different forms, none of which really considered the perspectives of the people in the land being fought over. European nations continued to compete against each other for how much foreign territory they could gain. As a result, different levels and forms of control developed in different regions around the world. Three main forms of imperialism that developed were:

• Colonies: A colony is the most direct form of control. In this form of imperialism, a powerful nation installs its own government and maintains direct control over other territories and regions. Often, foreign officials were brought in who reported back to the “mother country”. No locals were allowed in government and the people in that territory had no say in the laws, taxes, or policies set forth by the foreign power. This resulted in great suffering by indigenous populations who became “second-class citizens” in their own homeland. France and Britain often used this direct form of control. Great Britain had many colonies throughout history, including the 13 Colonies in North America, as well as in India during the “Raj” period. The colonies provided sources of raw materials and goods that were then shipped to sell in other foreign markets.

• Protectorates: A protectorate is when a country is able to govern itself through its own internal government, but is still controlled by an outside power. Local government officials were “allowed” to remain in power, but the style of government is based on European structure. There is limited self-rule while the foreign power maintains control of the foreign relations and provides defense to the country it controls. Britain established a protectorate over the Niger River region in Africa. Puerto Rico was also a US protectorate after the Spanish American War.

• Spheres of influence: A sphere of influence is when an outside power claims rights and privileges over an area or region. It is usually for trading and investment, but sometimes for military purposes as well. This often occurred in lands that bordered an already existing colony. Spheres of influence were most often established by a treaty. This was usually between two controlling nations who agreed not to interfere with the other’s territory or between a controlling nation and a representative of the territory. This was usually the precursor to the establishment of a colony or protectorate. After the United States established the “Open Door Policy” in 1899, China was carved up into spheres of influence by outside powers, including the US, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Russia.

Imperialism vs. Colonialism                                                                                                While imperialism and colonialism both result in the political and economic domination of one nation over others, there are subtle but important differences between the two systems. In essence, colonialism is the physical practice of global expansion, while imperialism is the idea that drives this practice. In a basic cause-and-effect relationship, imperialism can be thought of as the cause and colonialism as the effect. In its most familiar form, colonialism involves the relocation of people to a new territory as permanent settlers. Once established, the settlers maintain their loyalty and allegiance to their mother country while working to harness the new territory’s resources for the economic benefit of that country. In contrast, imperialism is simply the imposition of political and economic control over a conquered nation or nations through the use of military force and violence.

The Age of Imperialism

The Age of Imperialism spanned the year 1500 all the way to 1914. During the early 15th to the late 17th century, European powers such as England, Spain, France, Portugal, and Holland acquired vast colonial empires. During this period of “Old Imperialism,” the European nations explored the New World seeking trade routes to the Far East and often violently establishing settlements in North and South America as well as in Southeast Asia. It was during this period that some of imperialism’s worst human atrocities took place. During the Spanish Conquistadors’ conquest of Central and South America in the 16th century, an estimated eight million indigenous people died in the era of imperialism’s first large scale act of genocide. By the end of the age of Old Imperialism in the 1840s, Great Britain had become the dominant colonial power with territorial holdings in India, South Africa, and Australia. At the same time, France controlled the Louisiana territory in North America as well as French New Guinea. Holland had colonized the East Indies and Spain had colonized Central and South America. Due largely to its mighty navy’s dominance of the seas, Britain also readily accepted its role as keeper of world peace, later described as Pax Britannica or “British Peace.”

The Decline of Classic Imperialism

While generally profitable, imperialism, combined with nationalism, began to have negative consequences for European empires, their colonies, and the world. By 1914, an increasing number of conflicts between competing nations would erupt into World War I. By the 1940s, former World War I participants Germany and Japan, regaining their imperialistic power, sought to create empires across Europe and Asia, respectively. Driven by their desires to expand their nations’ spheres of world influence, Hitler of Germany and Emperor Hirohito of Japan would join forces to launch World War II. The tremendous human and economic costs of World War II greatly weakened the old empire building nations, effectively ending the age of classic, trade driven imperialism. Throughout the ensuing delicate peace and Cold War, decolonization proliferated. India along with several former colonial territories in Africa gained independence from Britain. While a scaled back version of British imperialism continued with its involvement in the Iranian coup d’état of 1953 and in Egypt during the 1956 Suez Crisis, it was the United States and the former Soviet Union that emerged from World War II as the world’s dominant superpowers. However, the ensuing Cold War from 1947 to 1991 would take a massive toll on the Soviet Union. With its economy drained, its military might a thing of the past, and its communist political structure fractured, the Soviet Union officially dissolved and emerged as the Russian Federation on December 26, 1991. As part of the dissolution agreement, the several colonial or “satellite” states of the Soviet empire were granted independence. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the United States became the dominant global power and source of modern imperialism.

In this post we will be looking at the history of mungo park, The African Association, Park and His Attitude towards Africans and Legacy.

INTRODUCTION

Mungo Park (September 11, 1771 – 1806) was a Scottish physician and explorer of the African continent who explorations in the Niger area on behalf of the British African Association helped to open up vast territories for trade and colonization. His exploits became iconic among explorers of Africa but while few doubt his courage and his determination to tread where no European had trod, his reputation among Africans was as a “ruthless murderer.” His career was set in the context of the early days of the European Scramble for Africa when the African continent was largely unknown. As well as providing a potential market and opportunity for imperial expansion, Africa represented the major remaining challenge for extending knowledge of the globe, and was a “focus for the fanciful imaginations of Europe.” Park died on his last expedition in 1806. On the one hand, his legacy contributed to exploitation and colonial domination, on the other it also helped to integrate Africa within the wider economic and cultural context, “for better or for worse, into a general system of knowledge and a world system of economics.” Exploration of the Niger River area was especially important because the river would aid transportation and thus the European settlement of West Africa, renowned for its gold deposits and for commerce in gold and precious gems.

History Of Mungo Park

Mungo Park was born in Selkirkshire at Foulshiels on the Yarrow, near Selkirk on a tenant farm which his father rented from the Duke of Buccleuch. He was the seventh in a family of thirteen. Although tenant farmers, the Parks were relatively well-off – they were able to pay for Park to have a good education, and Park’s father died leaving property valued at £3,000. Park was educated at home before attending Selkirk grammar school, then, at the age of 14, taking up an apprenticeship with a surgeon named Thomas Anderson in Selkirk. During his apprenticeship he made friends with Anderson’s son Alexander, and became acquainted with his daughter Allison, who would later become his wife. In October 1788, Park started at the University of Edinburgh, attending for four sessions studying medicine and botany. During his time at university, he spent a year in the natural history course of Prof John Walker. After completing his studies, he spent a summer in the Scottish Highlands engaged in botanical fieldwork with his brother-in-law, James Dickson. Dickson was a botanist who had begun his career as a gardener and seed merchant in Covent Garden. In 1788 he and Sir Joseph Banks – famous for role as James Cook’s scientific adviser on his round the world voyage of 1768-71 had founded the London Linnean Society. In January 1793, Park completed his medical education by passing an oral examination at the College of Surgeons in London. Through a recommendation by Banks, whose journeys in the cause of science he admired, he obtained the post of assistant surgeon on board the East Indiaman Worcester ship. The Worcester sailed to Benkulen in Sumatra in February 1793.

The African Association

In 1794 Park offered his services to the African Association, then looking out for a successor to Major Daniel Houghton, who had been sent out in 1790 to discover the course of the Niger and had died in the Sahara. Banks was a founder member of the Association, which had been formed in 1788 to ‘increase knowledge’ of Africa and to ‘grow rich, or rather richer’. McLynn thinks is significant that the society was formed in the same year as the Botany Bay landings which seemed to leave Africa as ‘nature’s last great redoubt’ in an age when ‘more was known the Arctic North than about places just 100 miles inland from the slave forts of the Gold Coast’.  Again, supported by Sir Joseph Banks, Park was selected. With an annual salary of 271 pounds a year, he was commissioned to travel as far up the Niger River as he could, then to exit via the Gambia. Writing of his motive, he said, ‘I had a passionate desire to examine into the productions of a country so little known, and to become experimentally acquainted with the modes of life and character of the natives.’ On June 21, 1795 he reached the Gambia River and ascended the river 200 miles to a British trading station named Pisania. On December 2, accompanied by two local guides, he started for the unknown interior. He chose the route crossing the upper Senegal basin and through the semi-desert region of Kaarta. The journey was full of difficulties, and at Ludamar he was imprisoned by the local chief for four months. He escaped, alone and with nothing save his horse and a pocket compass, on July 1, 1796, and on the 21st of the same month reached the long-sought Niger at Segu, being the first European to do so. Famously, when he ‘first clapped eyes on the Niger’ he remarked to the King of the Bambara that he had ‘come a long distance through many dangers just to behold it’ which provoked the response whether his own country had no rivers’ that he had to endure such hardship when most rivers looked much the same.

Park and His Attitude towards Africans

Park appeared to get on ‘well with the Africans he met’ in the initial phase of his journey. However, he disliked the Arab Tuareg, considering them barbarian lacking any ‘spark of humanity’. He appears to have exhibited considerable hostility towards them, firing at anyone he thought looked menacing. Heinrich Barth, who later reached Timbuktu, ‘was regale with tales of “that Christian traveler, Mungo Park, who had arrived on the Niger some 50 years ago appearing apparently out of nowhere, to the consternation of the natives”’ whose ‘policy it was to fire at any one who approached him with a threatening attitude’, killing some.

Between the journeys

Settling at Foulshiels, in August 1799 Park married Allison, daughter of his old master, Thomas Anderson. Banks wanted to include him in an expedition exploring Australia, but his wife was not keen on this and Park turned the offer down, which alienated him from his former patron. Park moved to Peebles, where he practiced as a doctor, having also fully qualified as a surgeon in 1799. In 1893, however, he was asked by the African Association to ‘chart the full course of the Niger’. Although Allison remained opposed, this time the salary was more attractive (five thousand for expenses and a thousand a year) and he began to prepare himself by studying Arabic.

Second journey

He sailed from Portsmouth for The Gambia on January 31, 1805, having been given a captain’s commission as head of the government expedition. Alexander Anderson, his brother-in-law, was second in command, and on him was bestowed a lieutenancy. George Scott, a fellow Borderer, was draughtsman, and the party included four or five artificers. At Goree (then in British occupation) Park was joined by Lieutenant Martyn, R.A., 35 privates and two seamen. The expedition did not reach the Niger until the middle of August, when only eleven Europeans were left alive; the rest had succumbed to fever or dysentery. From Bamako the journey to Segu was made by canoe. Having received permission from the local ruler to continue, at Sansandig, a little below Segu, Park made ready for his journey down the still unknown part of the river. Park, helped by one soldier, the only one left capable of work, converted two canoes into one tolerably good boat, 40 ft. long and 6 ft. broad.

Death

To his wife he wrote stating his intention not to stop nor land anywhere until he reached the coast, where he expected to arrive about the end of January 1806. These were the last communications received from Park, and nothing more was heard of the party until reports of disaster reached the settlements on The Gambia. At length the British government engaged Isaaco to go to the Niger to ascertain the fate of the explorer. At Sansandig Isaaco found the guide who had gone down stream with Park, and the substantial accuracy of the story he told was later confirmed by the investigations of Hugh Clapperton and Richard Lander. This guide (Amadi) stated that Park’s canoe descended the river to Yauri, where he (the guide) landed. In this long journey of about 1,000 miles Park, who had plenty of provisions, stuck to his resolution of keeping aloof from the natives. Below Jenné, came Timbuktu, and at various other places the natives came out in canoes and attacked his boat. These attacks were all repulsed, Park and his party having plenty of firearms and ammunition and the natives having none. The boat also escaped the many perils attendant on the navigation of an unknown stream strewn with many rapids – Park had built the “Joliba” so that it drew only a foot of water. But at the Bussa rapids, not far below Yauri, the boat struck on a rock and remained fast. On the bank were gathered hostile natives, who attacked the party with bow and arrow and throwing spears. Their position being untenable, Park, Martyn, and the two soldiers who still survived, sprang into the river and were drowned. The sole survivor was one of the slaves, from whom was obtained the story of the final scene. Isaaco, and later Lander, obtained some of Park’s effects, but his journal was never recovered. In 1827 his second son, Thomas, landed on the Guinea coast, intending to make his way to Bussa, where he thought his father might be detained a prisoner, but after penetrating some little distance inland he died of fever.

Legacy

Park’s widow Allison died in 1840. Mungo Park’s exploits fueled the European appetite for the exploration of Africa, becoming almost mythical. He inspired others of a similar modest social status to try their luck in Africa. He epitomized a new type of here, Kryza writes of a new type of European hero, the lone, brave African explorer who penetrates the heart of the continent with the sole purpose of finding out what is there to be found, whose tales of their own exploits soon “captured the imagination, fed the fantasies and filled the literature of Europe”. Similarity can be seen in the later career of fellow Scot Alexander Gordon Laing. His reputation among African, though, which may well have contributed to Laing’s murder, was very different. Laing ruefully commented that Park’s policy of killing defenseless men had been somewhat unthinking in terms its consequences for those who followed him, “how unjustifiable was such conduct.” Ironically, Laing considered himself a successor to Park. Park had come among them uninvited and acted with such arrogance that his own name came to represent any European, and was used as a curse, ‘” Mungo Park” became a generic insult hurled at European travelers; the lost explorer was passing into myth’ and it is said that the “Emir of Yauri uses Park’s silver-topped cane as his staff of office.”

In this post we will be looking at the meaning of legal evidence of title, ways to prove ownership and Important Documents for Proof of Land Ownership.

INTRODUCTION.

Since the beginning of time, Land has always been a source of wealth for its owners. Owning one elevated your status in your community or society. Land can be used for farming purposes to generate more wealth; it can be used to accommodate you and your family or it could be rented out to other people. Ownership of land connotes the rights to exclusive possession and unfettered access to it. Due to its significance, it has always been a highly coveted asset. It has been the source of disputes and communal clashes to date making the ability to prove the ownership of a piece of land very crucial especially when you want to purchase a property for the first time. Due to challenges that arise from land grabbers commonly called “Omo-Onile” where they sell a piece of land to several people, it is important to know what kind of documents can help in this case. See our post on method of property valuation in Nigeria. There have always been disputes arising from land matters which often end up in litigation; this is usually as a result of failure to obtain the right documents for proper ownership of land and also the failure to complete the process of acquiring a perfect title to the land. That is why in the bid to achieving justice, the court will rule in favor of any party that can prove a better title to a land or property.

WHAT IS LEGAL EVIDENCE OF TITLE?

Evidence of ˈtitle are documents such as DEEDs that prove that someone owns property. It is common practice for evidence of title to be supplied before contracts are exchanged.  It also means a title insurance policy, a preliminary title report or binder, a title insurance commitment, an attorney’s opinion of title based on an examination of the public records or an abstract, or any other means of reporting the state of title to real estate that is customary in the locality.

WAYS TO PROVE OWNERSHIP OF LAND IN NIGERIA.

It is now well accepted that in a claim for declaration of title, a Plaintiff as well as a Defendant/counter claiming declaration of title to land has open to him five ways by which to prove his title to the land in dispute. These five ways, which have crystallized over the years in a long line of decided cases as are replete in our law reports are each if proved by credible and cogent evidence sufficient to ground title in the party who so claims. These five methods are namely:

(a) Evidence of traditional history of title

(b) By production of title documents

(c) By acts of ownership

(d) By acts of possession long enough to warrant the person in possession as the owner.

(e) By acts of possession of an adjoining or adjacent land in such a way as would make it probable that the owner of the adjoining or adjacent land is also the owner of the land in dispute.

IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS FOR PROOF OF LAND OWNERSHIP

It is important to note that these documents do not replace one another. They are equally important.

1. Deed of Assignment: A Deed of Assignment is an essential legal land document for recording the sale of land. In addition, it transfers interest and title in the real estate property from one party to another, starting from the commencement date stated in the document.
2. Certificate of Occupancy: The C of O is one of the most important documents in a real estate transaction. It is provided by the state government and it verifies the ownership of the property or land in question.
3. Survey Plan: A survey plan is another important real estate document that gives accurate details of the measurement of the land and other important descriptions such as the location, owner’s name, etc.
4. Land Excision: The process of releasing land to indigenous people or settlers is known as land excision. If isn’t done before you purchase the land, you will still be required to do it down the line because it is a form of compensation to the original landowners.
5. Receipt: In real estate transactions, a receipt indicates that the seller has received the purchase price from the buyer after the property has been sold.
6.  Governor’s Consent: This document shows the consent obtained from the government on a land transaction through his signature. Without it, the transaction is deemed illegal.

According to the court of appeal, in cases of dispute, these are methods to prove your ownership of the land.

• Through traditional historical evidence
• By providing the documents of title
• Evidence of ownership and possession over an adequate period of time
• Proving possession of adjacent and connected land in circumstances that make it probable that the owner of such adjacent and connected land owns the land in dispute

Tips To Consider Before Purchasing Land

• Ensure you purchase land or properties from a reputable real estate company with a good track record
• Do your research and understand what the essential documents are and what they look like
• The documents associated with the real estate transaction should be reviewed by your lawyer

How To Write Land Agreement in Nigeria

It is very instructive to note that it is only a legal practitioner that is entitled to prepare instruments relating to land. Such instruments include Deed of a lease, Assignment, Legal mortgage, etc. the name and address of the legal practitioner must be stated on the instrument and it must bear a seal of such legal practitioner, this is also known as Franking of such instruments. Why this is so is that where an instrument relating to immovable property does not contain the particulars of the legal practitioner who prepared it, it may not be accepted for registration at the land registry.

In this post we will be looking at the fourth republic from 7th to 8th parliament of Ghana constituencies, speakers and members with dates from different regions and republics.

INTRODUCTION.

In the current Fourth Republic, the number of MPs first increased to 200 and subsequently to 275. There have been 8 parliaments so far in the Fourth Republic. On this post 4th to 6th parliament with continuation from the next post on the fourth republic. The list of its members is below.

7th parliament: 2017 — 2021

The election of Members of Parliament (MPs) to the 7th Parliament of the Fourth Republic was held on 7 December 2016. The Speaker is not an elected member of parliament though he/she is qualified to stand for election as such. There are a total of 275 constituencies in Ghana. 45 new constituencies were created prior to the 2012 election. The 7th Parliament had its first sitting on Sunday 7 January 2017 shortly after midnight to elect a Speaker and Deputy Speakers as well as for the administration of oaths to the Speaker and Members of Parliament.

8th parliament: 2021 — present

Some of the MPs who had been in parliament for many years decided not to stand again in the 2020 election. There were 11 in this category including Alban Bagbin, MP for Nadowli West constituency and previously Nadowli North since 2001. As many as 40 NPP MPs lost their primaries while 9 suffered the same fate in the NDC.

In this post we will be looking at current and previous regions with capitals in Ghana during independence and post-independence era.

INTRODUCTION

The Regions of Ghana constitute the first level of subnational government administration within the Republic of Ghana. As of 2020, there are currently sixteen regions, which are further divided for administrative purposes into 260 local metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies (or MMDA’s). Current regions the former ten regional boundaries were officially established in 1987, when the Upper West Region was inaugurated as the state’s newest administrative region. Although the official inauguration was in 1987, the Upper West Region had already functioned as an administrative unit since the break-up of the Upper Region in December 1982, prior to the 1984 national census. The referendum on the creation of six new regions was held on 27 December 2018 – all proposed new regions were approved. The Previous regional configurations at Independence in March 1957, the Northern Territories, Trans-Volta Togoland and the Gold Coast came together to form Ghana. There were initially five regions. The Trans-Volta Togoland was combined with part of the Eastern Region and Northern Territories to form the Volta Region. Post-independence and First republic Were on 4 April 1959, the Ashanti Region was officially split into the Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo Regions. This followed the Brong Ahafo Region Act No. 18 of 1959. This was in line with what the Brong Kyempem movement had been campaigning for, which is the recognition of the Bono people as a separate ethnic group from the Ashantis with their own region. On the day Ghana became a republic, 1 July 1960, the Northern Region got split into the Northern and Upper regions raising the number of regions to seven. During the second republic, the Western Region was split into the Western and Central Regions, making eight regions in total. This was done ahead of the 1970 population census. In 1971, Sekondi and Takoradi were merged to form Sekondi-Takoradi, the new capital of the Western Region. The PNDC era brought about the Provisional National Defense Council which was the military government in power between 31 December 1981 and January 1993 promulgated the Greater Accra Law (PNDCL 26) of 23 July 1982 which created the Greater Accra Region. This made the Accra Capital District, where the national capital, Accra was and the Ada Local Council, both areas within the Eastern Region parts of the new Greater Accra Region. In the following year 1983, the Upper Region was divided into the Upper East Region and Upper West Regions, bringing the total number of regions to ten.

CURRENT REGIONS

The former ten regional boundaries were officially established in 1987, when the Upper West Region was inaugurated as the state’s newest administrative region. Although the official inauguration was in 1987, the Upper West Region had already functioned as an administrative unit since the break-up of the Upper Region in December 1982, prior to the 1984 national census. The referendum on the creation of six new regions was held on 27 December 2018 – all proposed new regions were approved

PREVIOUS REGIONAL CONFIGURATIONS

Independence – 6 March 1957

At Independence in March 1957, the Northern Territories, Trans-Volta Togoland and the Gold Coast came together to form Ghana. There were initially five regions. The Trans-Volta Togoland was combined with part of the Eastern Region and Northern Territories to form the Volta Region

POST-INDEPENDENCE AND FIRST REPUBLIC

On 4 April 1959, the Ashanti Region was officially split into the Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo Regions. This followed the Brong Ahafo Region Act No. 18 of 1959. This was in line with what the Brong Kyempem movement had been campaigning for, which is the recognition of the Bono people as a separate ethnic group from the Ashantis with their own region. On the day Ghana became a republic, 1 July 1960, the Northern Region got split into the Northern and Upper regions raising the number of regions to seven.

SECOND REPUBLIC

During the second republic, the Western Region was split into the Western and Central Regions, making eight regions in total. This was done ahead of the 1970 population census. In 1971, Sekondi and Takoradi were merged to form Sekondi-Takoradi, the new capital of the Western Region.

PNDC era

The Provisional National Defense Council which was the military government in power between 31 December 1981 and January 1993 promulgated the Greater Accra Law (PNDCL 26) of 23 July 1982 which created the Greater Accra Region. This made the Accra Capital District, where the national capital, Accra was and the Ada Local Council, both areas within the Eastern Region parts of the new Greater Accra Region. In the following year 1983, the Upper Region was divided into the Upper East Region and Upper West Regions, bringing the total number of regions to ten.

In this post we will be looking at the fourth republic from 4th to 6th parliament of Ghana constituencies, speakers and members with dates from different regions and republics.

INTRODUCTION.

Fourth Republic (1992 – present)

In the current Fourth Republic, the number of MPs first increased to 200 and subsequently to 275. There have been 8 parliaments so far in the Fourth Republic. On this post 4th to 6th parliament with continuation from the next post on the fourth republic. The list of its members is below.

4th parliament: 2005 — 2009

The following table is a list of MPs elected on 7 December 2004, ordered by region and constituency. The previous MP and previous party column show the MP and party holding the seat prior to the election.

5th parliament: 2009 — 2013

The following table is a list of MPs elected on 7 December 2008, ordered by region and constituency. The previous MP and previous party column show the MP and party holding the seat prior to the election.